Organ Shortage and Proposed Solutions

A whole or partial transplantation of an organ from a person, donor, to another person, recipient, is known as an organ transplant.  Kidney, liver, skin grafting, bone marrow, face, and heart are just some organs being transplanted today.  Statistics show that in 2000 there were 22,854 organs transplanted successfully. However, more than fifty-eight hundred patients died while waiting for a transplant.  This is equivalent to more than fifteen a day. This waiting list has increased drastically since then.

There are different factors causing organ shortage. One factor is that doctors are more willing to recommend transplants since the success rate is so good, therefore placing more people on the donor waiting list.  According to statistics in 1998, the successfulness of organ transplants was seventy to ninety-five percent. This success rate is due to the drug, cyclosporine, which helps the patient’s body to not reject the new organ.  Another factor is many organs have to be removed surgically quickly after the donor’s death. This sometimes isn’t possible due to the circumstances of the death. The last factor is people are not willing to become donors.

Different proposals are being suggested, but most all are controversial.  Changing the policy to “presumed consent” instead of having to receive consent from the patient or a family member is one proposal.  Another proposal is “mandated choice” where people have to state their preference when getting their driver’s licenses or maybe when filing their tax returns.  Getting paid for organ donation is another proposal. Xenotransplantation, the transplant of an animal’s organ into a human’s body, is yet another proposal. Two final proposals are creating artificial organs and growing human organs.  For now, willing organ donors is the main source for organ transplants, but in the future artificial organs, lab grown organs, and animal transplants are a possibility.

Rachel Smith

“Organ Transplants,” eNotes. 2003. 1 Oct. 2013 <http://www.enotes.com/topics/organ-transplant-article>.

“Organ transplant,” ScienceDaily. 2013. 1 Oct. 2013 <http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/o/organ_transplant.htm>.

Without DNA, or deoxyribonucliec acid, the human body wouldn’t exist. The double helix is a model that has two strands of DNA that intertwine to resemble a ladder (Tortora, 56). Each strand  of DNA depends on the other one when replicated, or when it makes a new strand. ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, is the energy required for DNA to be replicated. However, this ATP can be helpful, but sometimes harmful (University of Bristol). What can cause ATP to be helpful?

In this study, a team monitored a helicase found in a strand of DNA. It was discovered that this specific helicase used ATP to change its shape at the beginning of unzipping DNA. The rest of the process proceeds to without further ATP consumption after the enzymes changes shape.

They were studying how the helicase operates in bacteria, which is likely how they operate in our cells, since all cells use helicases to unzip DNA for repair or replication. This a way natural selection has optimized cellular machinery to conserve energy.

DNA repair is an example of this. This study has pushed science in the right direction of microscopic improvements. I think this article is important for everyone to know since every human being is made up of DNA. Everyone should know how the body is made, functions, and what makes you special because each person has a different set of DNA.

University of Bristol. “Random walks in DNA bacterial enzyme has evolved an energy-efficient method to move long distances along DNA.” Science Daily, 19 Apr 2013. Web. 13 Sept 2013

Tortora G.J. and B. Derrickson, 2012. Principals of Anatomy and Physiology. 13th ed., John Wiley and Sons

Hereditary breast cancer is extremely rare and is caused by a mutant gene passed from parents to their children. People who carry the mutant gene have a very high increased risk of developing breast cancer at some point in their lives. Hereditary breast cancer can come from a strong family history of breast cancer. For example, if your mother, sister and aunts had breast cancer, their offspring have a 50 percent chance of inheriting the gene.

In 1994, the first gene associated with breast cancer was found on chromosome 17. Two years later in 1996 another gene was identified on chromosome 13. In 1995 and 1996, there were studies done that sampled DNA. The samples revealed that Ashkenazi (Eastern European) Jews are 10 times more likely to have the mutated genes. This means, that approximately 2.65 percent of Ashkenazi Jewish population has one of these mutated genes.  But did you know that only 0.2 percent of the general population carries these mutation?

The only test for hereditary breast cancer is the DNA test. It will determine whether an individual is in a high-risk family that has this genetic mutation. However, the test will not tell if and when the cancer might develop. Most causes of breast cancer are not hereditary; it is possible to develop breast cancer whether or not a genetic mutation is present.

Works Cited:

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1247/

http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/breast-cancer#inheritance

Experts have investigated new discoveries involving genes and their associations with blood pressure. Genes are found within the nucleus of a cell and are the hereditary units that control cellular structure and direct cellular activity. The study was performed by the “Continental Origins and Genetic Epidemiology Network”, where they took a closer look into the ancestry of African-Americans. Most studies have been performed on humans of European ancestry.

Through reading the science article, I learned that scientist have discovered four novel gene variations.  Our genetic make-up influences many conditions of the human body such as hypertension. Hypertension is a medical condition of high blood pressure The 19-site meta-analysis is using nearly 30,000 African Americans in order to learn more about the gene mutation an its link to blood pressure.  The studies are ongoing and using human blood samples to help give scientist a better understanding of the gene functions and how the gene mutations are linked to hypertension Hypertension is a dangerous health problem that affects many people of all races and it can lead to other more fatal and complicated health problems. Still in its early trials of discovery not much was said to what all they had found, but hopeful that it will lead to further break threw on blood pressure issues among different nationalities.

Even though the studies are not completed yet, the hope is that scientists can target the gene mutations that cause high blood pressure. They could also discover new drugs that would better treat the condition. This study helps give an understanding not only to hypertension in African-Americans but may help find the gene in other nationalities where new treatments and better drugs can produce more efficient results.

Kethanne K. Colich

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/09/130910112819.htm

Tortora, Gerard J and Derrickson, Bryan. Principles of Anatomy & Physiology. 13th. 2011.Print.

Medical imagining is one way healthcare specialists can diagnose patients, including children. One type of these medical imagining scans is called a CT scan or computed tomography scan. A CT scan can see organs and soft tissues with much more detail than some other types of radiographs (Tortora). Even though these scans are more detailed than some, it does not necessarily mean they are better. These CT scans expose the body to a large does of harmful radiation. Which poses the question, are CT scans more helpful or harmful?

In a recent study, researchers have found that the use of CT scans of the head, abdomen/pelvis, chest, or spine in children under the age of 14 has more than doubled from 1996 to 2005. This news has shown that the radiation associated with this scan has the potential to increase radiation-induced cancer in children. Researches estimate that these pediatric CT scans, while helpful for diagnosis, could potentially cause 4,870 future cancers by these 4 million scans per year (American).

Researchers estimate by reducing 25% of doses to the midpoint we could possibly prevent 43% of these future cancers (American). Although this reduction would not cure childhood cancer it would certainly play a role in prevention. This research gives us insight into areas of healthcare we should improve on, such as finding/using a less harmful yet just as effective scan to decrease exposure to radiation. The ultimate goal is to save the lives of children, by being helpful and not harmful.

American Medical Association (AMA). “Study examines cancer risk from pediatric radiation exposure from CT scans.” ScienceDaily, 10 Jun. 2013. Web. 13 Sep. 2013.

Tortora G.J. and B. Derrickson. 2012. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 13^th ed., John Wiley and Sons

The article, “New Evidence that Cancer Cells Change While Moving throughout the Body” gives an explanation on the drastic changes that occur in cancer cells. The National Cancer Institute gives us a vivid and accurate definition of what exactly cancer is by explaining that cancer cells are abnormal cells that divide without control, and they eventually invade tissues. Unfortunately, it is well known that cancer cells are not stationary to a certain region of the body. If the cells are not caught at an early stage, they will freely move to other areas of the body. This can be extremely harmful to cancer patients because their condition has a chance of worsening instead of improving. Metastasis, which according to the article, “New Evidence that Cancer Cells Change While Moving Throughout the Body,” is the spread of cancer cells from the primary tumor to secondary locations throughout the body. Metastasis is being researched and experimented on by scientists at Georgia Tech to learn more about the habits of these busy cells so that more cures can be made.

The article about Georgia Tech’s recent findings then goes on to tell about how a cell begins to molecularly change as it leaves its first destination and travels to the ones thereafter in the body. The proper name for the ways of these cells is EMT, or epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. Unfortunately, as these cells travel more and more, they leave behind the ability to work with chemotherapy because of their new being. From a macroscopic level, the changes are not visible; however, when viewed more closely, one will see that the molecular aspect has definite signs of change. According to the article, careful research shows that doctors should not only prescribe their cancer patients with medications that will kill cancer cells, but also medications that will put a stop to the cells that travel throughout the body. Because it is now known that these cells on the move are not working hand-in-hand with chemotherapy, scientists and researchers are having to develop a more up to date version of chemotherapy that will fight against these resistant cells.

The topic I chose is one that can relate to most likely any individual in one way or another. I say this because almost everyone has a loved one battling cancer or knows of someone who is battling it. It is important to have an understanding of how things work, cancer cells particularly. Reading and writing on this topic gave me a clearer understanding of how cancer cells develop. Because of this, I know it will provide others with the same knowledge and understanding that it provided me.

New Evidence that Cancer Cells Change While Moving throughout Body. Georgia Tech., 12    Aug. 2013. Web. 12 Sept. 2013.

What is Cancer? National Cancer Institute at the National Institutes of Health., 08 Feb. 2013. Web. 12. Sept. 2013.

Connective tissues are responsible for many everyday functions and also for protection of internal structures.  It is the most abundant type of tissue found in the human body.  Connective tissue has a high rate of healing when the damage is considered small (Tortora). However, not all connective damage can be easily fixed. It can be damaged by genetic disorders, or diseases acquired later in life.  Some of these disorders may be harmful or even deadly such as Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. The real question at hand is, what causes diseases like Ehlers-Danlos syndrome?

In a study, researchers have found a gene that may answer this question about Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (RIKEN). Ehlers-Danlos syndrome affects many areas of connective tissues such as the blood vessels and joints.  It can cause blood vessels and intestines linings to explode or tear.  This syndrome is genetically passed down from generations (Mayo). Studies found that B3GALT6 mutations can cause this syndrome. B3GALT6 is a gene that helps encodes for enzymes.  The researchers came to the conclusion that a B3GALT6 is a requirement for the growth and development of connective tissues.  In addition, it was found that this affects ligaments, bones, and many more internal areas (RIKEN).

The research has not provided a cure for this harmful disorder of connective tissue.  However, this study has placed science in the right direction for cures.  This study will help individuals and his/her families be able to cope with the disorder.  On a brighter note, the science community can build upon this discovery to find the cure for Ehlers-Danlos syndrome.

Mayo Clinic Staff, . “Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome.” Mayo Clinic. 2013. Web. 12 Sept. 2013. <http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/ehlers-danlos-syndrome/DS00706>.

RIKEN. “Gene identified, responsible for a spectrum of disorders affecting the bones and connective tissue.” ScienceDaily, 9 May 2013. Web. 12 Sep. 2013.

Tortora G.J. and B. Derrickson. 2012. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 13th ed., John Wiley and Sons

Ultrasound scanning is a procedure that uses high-frequency sound waves to view images from the inside of the body. Since this procedure is remarkably safe and painless, it is commonly used to monitor fetal development during pregnancy. While it is mostly used for pregnancies, it is also used to observe size, location, and actions of organs and blood flow through blood vessels. From the time the ultrasound was created, there have been many improvements in the way it is used today.

Dr. Stuart Hameroff is the creator of the first clinical study of brain ultrasound; it was published May 2013 in the journal ‘Brain Stimulation’. Dr. Hameroff became intrigued with the idea after he read about a study done by Dr. Jamie Tyler, who discovered physiological and behavioral effects in animals after ultrasound scanning was applied to their scalps. Dr. Hameroff knew that ultrasound vibrates at about 10 million vibrations per second and that proteins inside brain neurons were involved in mood and consciousness. With this knowledge, he wanted to study this theory on human brains, beginning with himself. After holding an ultrasound transducer to his head for 15 seconds, he began to doubt his theory, until one minute later. After doubting the possibility, he started to feel as if he’d had a martini. His mood was evaluated for the next hour or two. He figured it was just a placebo effect, so he tested 31 chronic pain patients in a double-blind study in which the clients did not know if the ultrasound unit had been turned on or off. After the tests, Dr. Hameroff concluded the placebo effect was not true. The patients reported improvements in their mood for up to 40 minutes, compared to no difference in mood when the machine was turned off.

Because ultrasound vibrations applied to the brain can affect moods, it could mean new treatments for psychological, neurological, and psychiatric disorders. It could also be used to treat anxiety and depression. Ultrasound scanning may provide a range of new applications of ultrasound in medicine. “The idea is that this device will be a wearable unit that noninvasively and safely interfaces with your brain using ultrasound to regulate neural activity”- Dr. Sanguinetti.  Although ultrasound scanning is usually used for imaging, it could be used for treating these disorders as long as you avoid excessive exposure and heating. Because of this new discovery, ultrasound scanning could create a new future for healthcare.

 Gerard J. Tortora and Bryan Derrickson. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 13^th ed. (lecture notes also).

 http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/07/130718161525.htm